❤️ Lifestyle brand 🐼

"A lifestyle brand is a brand that attempts to embody the values, aspirations, interests, attitudes, or opinions of a group or a culture for marketing purposes.page 16 Lifestyle brands seek to inspire, guide, and motivate people, with the goal of their products contributing to the definition of the consumer's way of life. As such, they are closely associated with the advertising and other promotions used to gain mind share in their target market.Brand/Story: Cases and Explorations in Fashion Branding By Joseph Hancock Fairchild Books, Bloomsbury Publishing, Inc. 2016 They often operate from an ideology, hoping to attract a relatively high number of people and ultimately become a recognised social phenomenon. A lifestyle brand is an ideology created by a particular organisation's brand (Schmitt, 2012). An organisation achieves a lifestyle brand by focusing on evoking an emotional connection with its customers,(Kim & Brandon, 2010) creating a desire for a consumer to be affiliated with a particular group or brand.(Austin & Matos, 2013) Furthermore, the consumer will believe that their identity will be reinforced if they publicly associate themselves with a particular lifestyle brand, such as expression by using a brand on social media.(Catalin & Andreea, 2014) As individuals have different identities based on their personal experiences, choices or background (including social class, ethnicity or culture), an organisation must understand to whom it directs its brand. By operating off a lifestyle brand ideology, an organisation's ultimate goal is to become a recognised social phenomenon. Lifestyle brand marketing uses market research to segment target markets based on psychographics rather than demographics. Definition Lifestyle brands operate from the idea that each individual has an identity based on their choices, experiences, and background (e.g. ethnicity, social class, subculture, nationality, etc.). Lifestyle brands focus on evoking emotional connections between a consumer and that consumer's desire to affiliate him or herself with a group. Some recent contributions have defined lifestyle brands as one of the possible ways of consumer self-expression: customers believe that their identity will be reinforced or supplemented if they publicly associate themselves with a lifestyle brand or other symbol-intensive brands. ; Factors that influence consumer decision process It is evident that consumers in our modern world continually face multiple decisions with regard to product choice due to many competing products, such aspects as a products attributes have been shown to be involved in the consumer decision process (Catalin & Andreea, 2014). A number of factors can be identified that affect a consumer's choice of product brand which influences their lifestyle. Consumers are known to choose a brand that is acceptable to their self-image that they are trying to portray. This has left companies having to re-establish and position their products to ensure they meet the lifestyle a consumer is trying to obtain. They have an opportunity to refine their target market which would limit competition due to a reduced number in consumers who would be attracted to their specific brand because of the way they might perceive their lifestyle. Consumers have a tendency to evaluate product attributes as opposed to a case by case assessment (Ainslie and Rosii, 2005). There is the need for brands to be understood and how they can be influential with regard to consumer's decision making considerations. Three processes are identified as being intertwined in choice behaviour. These are psychological, sociological and economic processes (Keller, 2008). Within these three processes lifestyle of the consumer also becomes intertwined with consumers tending to choose a brand they feel is congruent with their self-image, their identity – who they feel they are and what they connect with the most. Vyncke (2002) suggests that a consumer's values, goals and vision for their life along with aesthetic style are all reflective of individual lifestyle. ; Consumer self-expression Consumers use brands to express their identity (Chernev, Hamilton & Gal, 2011). The need for self-expression can be related to the need for acceptance within society and the societal view on brands and how different brands portray income or wealth. An advantage to lifestyle brands is that consumers can express their identity in a number of ways. This is a dominating factor that would lead on to the consumer adopting a certain lifestyle. Brands allow for customers to express themselves and portray their identity and lifestyle (Keller, 2008). Lifestyle brands in particular portray a type of meaning that allows a particular reference group to attach themselves based on their lifestyle, values or beliefs (Escalas, & Bettman, 2005). ; Perceived brand value If a consumer loves fashion this will have a positive effect on his/her willingness to pay for a luxury, top-end brand. In order for a lifestyle brand to be successful and dominate market share it needs to enhance customers experiences and provide more than just a product. Consumers are more willing and likely to purchase a brand that establishes itself as to value and satisfaction. Brand value is defined as comparing focal brands with unbranded products that have had the same level or same ways of marketing to consumers, as well as adopting the same product attributes (Yoo and Donthu, 2001). Luxury brands target those that have an extreme lifestyle. Price is never a factor. Three categories are identified as measuring brand value: brand loyalty, perceived value and brand awareness/association. Consumers associate themselves with luxury fashion brands to portray their lifestyle and separate them from the rest (Vigneron & Johnson, 2004). Social value is an aspect that relates to consumers' desire to obtain luxury brands that they hope will offer them a symbolic part of a group or culture. There are emotional factors that are connected to the consumption of a luxury brand: for example those that bring pleasure or excitement (Choi & Kim 2003; Kim et al., 2010; Vigneron & Johnson, 2004). Consumers who purchase luxury brands tend to have a strong social function within their social class. ; Retail brands Lifestyle retail branding is the way in which retailers refine their products or services to interest lifestyles in specific market segments (Helman & Chernatony, 1999). Examples of lifestyle retail brands include Laura Ashley, GAP and Benneton. These retailers offer a distinct and recognised set of values to consumers. Over time, a number of retailers have come up with their own brand strategies and are now seen as lifestyle retail brands because they are targeting consumers who adopt their brand to align themselves with a lifestyle they want to obtain (Helman & Chernatony, 1999). Psychology It is important for an organisation to understand its brand's role amongst consumers. To achieve this, an organisation must use the following aspects of the lifestyle brand model (Schmitt, 2012). ; Brand categorisation This is defined as a consumer sorting products or brands into categories, based on their past experiences with that brand (Schmitt, 2012). It is used to avoid confusion, as consumers may be overwhelmed when comparing one product with an extensive range of other brands of the same product (Nenycz-Thiel & Romaniuk, 2016). Categorisation helps consumers evaluate the quality of the product (Catalin & Andreea, 2014). For example, a consumer may choose to purchase an Apple iPhone over a Huawei mobile phone, as they may believe that the iPhone has a better camera quality (Nenycz-Thiel & Romaniuk, 2016). ; Brand affect This aspect is defined as the effect or influence a brand may have upon an organisation and its consumers (Orzan, Platton, Stefanescu & Orzan, 2016). For example, Whole Foods can affect a consumer by going the extra mile to offer organic foods products that suit that particular consumer's needs (Yi, Batra & Siqing, 2015). ; Brand personality This is when a brand encompasses a consistent set of traits in which the consumer can relate (Cohen, 2014). For example, Crossfit is a lifestyle brand which encompasses the idea of pushing yourself for your fitness. This idea is consistent on a global level. Through this lifestyle, consumers or participants have the opportunity to feel a part of a group of healthy, motivated fitness fanatics (Qing, Rong & Xiaobing, 2015). ; Brand symbolism This is defined as the strong symbolism that a brand transmits to its consumers, which is adopted for its social benefits (Kubat & Swaminathan, 2015). It allows consumers to feel as though they can express themselves through a form of identity, whilst being provided with a sense of belonging to a group (Wu, Klink & Guo, 2013). For example, Tiffany & Co. are a jewellery brand which offer affordable and expensive, high-quality jewellery products. When a person sees a consumer wearing its product in public, that person may aim to own a piece of Tiffany & Co. jewellery themselves, with the aim to seek social benefits or fit into a particular group (Athaide & Klink, 2012). ; Brand attachment Attachment is brought about when people form an emotional connection between themselves and a brand (Malar, Krohmer, Hoyer & Nyffenegger, 2011). For example, Coca-Cola uses advertisements to portray its happy lifestyle to consumers. These advertisements are used to form an emotional connection with the audience. Through the use of the “Open happiness” slogan, consumers may believe that by purchasing and consuming a Coca-Cola drink, they will feel like they are happy and having fun (Malar, Krohmer, Hoyer & Nyffenegger, 2011). Examples While some lifestyle brands purposely reference existing groups or cultures, others create a disruption within the status quo and propose an innovative viewpoint on the world. The driving force may be the product, the shopping experience, the service, the communication or a combination of these elements. These are often result from visionary goals of the CEO or founder. Early on, Apple's founder Steve Jobs sought to integrate the company's innovations into the industries of music, entertainment, and telecommunications.Cuneo, Alice Z.; Elkin, Tobi; Kim, Hank; Stanley, T.L. (December 15, 2003), "Apple transcends as lifestyle brand." Advertising Age. 74(50):S-2-S-6 In 2002, he gifted each 7th- and 8th-grader in the state of Maine with a laptop, in an effort to show that it wasn't "about the technology, it's about what people can do with it." Lee Clow—the chairman of Omnicom Group's TBWA Worldwide and Apple marketing partner—said that Jobs had "a very rigorous view of Apple's tone of voice and the way it talks with people," calling it "very human, very accessible." Burton has built its lifestyle brand by drawing on the snowboarding subculture and Quiksilver has done the same with the surfing community. Some lifestyle brands align themselves with an ideology. Patagonia proposes an environmentally friendly way of life. Volcom, with the promise "Youth Against Establishment", gives a label and a sense of belonging to those who are "against" the world of adults. One popular source for lifestyle brands is also national identity. Victoria's Secret purposely evoked the English upper class in its initial branding efforts, while Burberry is recalling the hip London culture. Social or personal image is also a reference point for some lifestyle brands. In the 1990s, Abercrombie & Fitch successfully resuscitated a 1950s ideal —the white, masculine “beefcake”— during a time of political correctness and rejection of 1950s orthodoxy, creating a lifestyle brand based on a preppy, young, Ivy- League lifestyle. Their retail outlets reflect this lifestyle through their luxurious store environment, attractive store associates (models), and their black and white photographs featuring young people "living the Abercrombie & Fitch lifestyle". In doing so, Abercrombie & Fitch has created an outlet for those who lead, or wish to lead or wish to dream about leading this lifestyle. Companies like home furnishing associate themselves with the term “lifestyle branding” when they are developing their brand portfolio (“Lexington Offering,” 2009). A furniture company is likely to align new product lines with lifestyle collections that are associated with fashion icons, celebrities and well-known interior designers. For consumers this is reassuring and entices them to purchase home furnishings to be like these iconic influencers. Furniture companies have said that it helps them connect with those consumers who associate other categories with these celebrities. It is their way of tapping into new markets that have not yet been reached (Combs, 2010). Companies that have celebrity names associated with them provides a certain degree of guarantee to the brand (Clow et al., 2011). A company called Doman Home Furnishings launched a campaign about food and kitchen products to enhance its brand as a lifestyle choice (“Domain Home,” 2004). The campaign used models which had a caption along the lines of ‘a slice of life’. This allowed consumers to gain a good understanding of the brand and the lifestyle that it could offer. Home furnishing companies use lifestyle merchandising to promote brand extension. Furthermore, the brand is communicated to consumers through using a designer who is associated with also creating fashion-apparel products. Therefore, this creates a connection between the fashion and homeware brands for these consumers are already associating with or are familiar with the fashion-apparel products. Expansion One key indication that a brand has become a lifestyle is when it successfully expands beyond its original product. For example, Nike used to be a product-based company, focusing on making running shoes. But over time, the company and its logo has become associated with the athletic subculture. That has allowed Nike to expand into related athletic categories, such as sports equipment and apparel. Gaiam started out as a yoga company but has had great success in developing a lifestyle brand, which has allowed it to move into other markets as varied as solar power and green building supplies. Nautica started out as a collection of 6 outerwear pieces but built itself into a global lifestyle brand by having collections for men, women, kids, home and accessories. A company's status as a lifestyle brand isn't achieved by providing a wide range of products but by the benefit and symbolic value that the customer associates with the brand. See also * Symbol-intensive brand * Status symbol * Coolhunting Notes References * * Combs, H. E. (2010, March 1). Licensing: Big names still in demand. * Domain Home Fashions Launches Internet Lifestyle Marketing Campaign Furniture World Magazine. (2004). * * Furniture Today. (2009, April 13). Lexington offering dealer incentives for market orders. Retrieved from http://www.furnituretoday.com/article/480757-lexington-offering-dealer- incentives-for-market-orders * * Keller, K. L. (2008). Strategic brand management: Building, measuring and managing brand equity. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. External links * Not Every Brand is a Lifestyle Brand – BusinessWeek * Luxury Products as Lifestyle Brands – Knowledge@Wharton Category:Brand management Category:Types of branding Category:Lifestyle "

❤️ Evidence under Bayes' theorem 🐼

"The use of evidence under Bayes' theorem relates to the probability of finding evidence in relation to the accused, where Bayes' theorem concerns the probability of an event and its inverse. Specifically, it compares the probability of finding particular evidence if the accused were guilty, versus if they were not guilty. An example would be the probability of finding a person's hair at the scene, if guilty, versus if just passing through the scene. Another issue would be finding a person's DNA where they lived, regardless of committing a crime there. __TOC__ Explanation Among evidence scholars, the study of evidence in recent decades has become broadly interdisciplinary, incorporating insights from psychology, economics, and probability theory. One area of particular interest and controversy has been Bayes' theorem. "Bayes' Theorem in the Court of Appeal Law Articles", Bernard Robertson, Tony Vignaux (on R v Adams), LawIntl-2451. Bayes' theorem is an elementary proposition of probability theory. It provides a way of updating, in light of new information, one’s probability that a proposition is true. Evidence scholars have been interested in its application to their field, either to study the value of rules of evidence, or to help determine facts at trial. Suppose, that the proposition to be proven is that defendant was the source of a hair found at the crime scene. Before learning that the hair was a genetic match for the defendant’s hair, the factfinder believes that the odds are 2 to 1 that the defendant was the source of the hair. If they used Bayes’ theorem, they could multiply those prior odds by a “likelihood ratio” in order to update her odds after learning that the hair matched the defendant’s hair. The likelihood ratio is a statistic derived by comparing the odds that the evidence (expert testimony of a match) would be found if the defendant was the source with the odds that it would be found if defendant was not the source. If it is ten times more likely that the testimony of a match would occur if the defendant was the source than if not, then the factfinder should multiply their prior odds by ten, giving posterior odds of 20 to one. Bayesian skeptics have objected to this use of Bayes’ theorem in litigation on a variety of grounds. These run from jury confusion and computational complexity to the assertion that standard probability theory is not a normatively satisfactory basis for adjudication of rights. Bayesian enthusiasts have replied on two fronts. First, they have said that whatever its value in litigation, Bayes' theorem is valuable in studying evidence rules. For example, it can be used to model relevance. It teaches that the relevance of evidence that a proposition is true depends on how much the evidence changes the prior odds, and that how much it changes the prior odds depends on how likely the evidence would be found (or not) if the proposition were true. These basic insights are also useful in studying individual evidence rules, such as the rule allowing witnesses to be impeached with prior convictions. Second, they have said that it is practical to use Bayes' theorem in a limited set of circumstances in litigation (such as integrating genetic match evidence with other evidence), and that assertions that probability theory is inappropriate for judicial determinations are nonsensical or inconsistent. Some observers believe that in recent years (i) the debate about probabilities has become stagnant, (ii) the protagonists in the probabilities debate have been talking past each other, (iii) not much is happening at the high-theory level, and (iv) the most interesting work is in the empirical study of the efficacy of instructions on Bayes’ theorem in improving jury accuracy. However, it is possible that this skepticism about the probabilities debate in law rests on observations of the arguments made by familiar protagonists in the legal academy. In fields outside of law, work on formal theories relating to uncertainty continues unabated. One important development has been the work on "soft computing" such as has been carried on, for example, at Berkeley under Lotfi Zadeh's BISC (Berkeley Initiative in Soft Computing). Another example is the increasing amount of work, by people both in and outside law, on "argumentation" theory. Also, work on Bayes nets continues. Some of this work is beginning to filter into legal circles. See, for example, the many papers on formal approaches to uncertainty (including Bayesian approaches) in the Oxford journal: Law, Probability and Risk . Examples There are some famous cases where Bayes' theorem can be applied. * In the medical examples, a comparison is made between the evidence of cancer suggested by mamograms (5% show positive) versus the general risk of having cancer (1% in general): the ratio is 1:5, or 20% risk, of having breast cancer when a mammogram shows a positive result. * A court case which argued the probabilities, with DNA evidence, is R v Adams. See also * R v Adams - court case about Bayes' Theorem with DNA References Category:Evidence law Category:Bayesian statistics Category:Forensic statistics "

❤️ Stadtbahn 🐼

"Stadtbahn logo as used in North Rhine-Westphalia A ''''' (; German for "city railway"; plural ') are types of rail transport. One type of transport originated in the 19th century, firstly in Berlin and followed by Vienna, where rail routes were created that could be used independently from other traffic. In the 1960s and 1970s Stadtbahn networks were created again but now by upgrading tramways or light railways. This process includes adding segments built to rapid transit standards –usually as part of a process of conversion to a metro railway– mainly by the building of metro-grade tunnels in the central city area. In the first years after the opening of the tunnel sections, often regular trams vehicles (but adapted for tunnel service) were used. These trams were followed by specially designed vehicles like the Stadtbahn B series. By the 1980s virtually all cities had abandoned the long- term goal of establishing a full-scale metro system due to the excessive costs associated with converting the tramways. Most Stadtbahn systems are now a mixture of tramway-like operations in suburban and peripheral areas and a more metro-like mode of operation in city centres, with underground stations. This 20th century Stadtbahn concept eventually spread from Germany to other European countries, where it became known as pre-metro. History Cologne Stadtbahn at Bensberg in 2005 A train of Stuttgart Stadtbahn in 2002 1920s: Berlin and Vienna cross-city lines The term Stadtbahn first arose in the first half of the 20th century as a name for the cross-city lines in Berlin and Vienna. The Berlin Stadtbahn line is an elevated heavy rail line linking the East and the West. Long distance, regional, suburban, and urban services (S-Bahn) are operated on it. The Wiener Stadtbahn (Vienna) was in the beginning a system of heavy rail lines circling the city, free of level crossings, operated by steam trains. After World War I the Wiental, Donaukanal and Gürtel lines were converted into an electric light rail system with tram- like two-axle cars (which on line 18G until 1945 switched into the tram network at Gumpendorfer Strasse station). In the 1970s to 1990s the infrastructure was updated, and the lines were partially relocated: they are now part of the Vienna U-Bahn services 'U4' and 'U6'. The Vorortelinie line remained heavy rail and is now part of the Vienna S-Bahn. 1960s: modern Stadtbahn Since the 1960s the term Stadtbahn has become identified with a second, now dominant, meaning, which is a reference to underground urban rail network that is used by conventional trams but planned at the outset to be eventually converted into a metro system (which may or may not be implemented in the end). Post-World War II transport policies in West German cities aimed for a separation of public and private transport. The conflicts that arose between increasing car usage and the existing tramway systems led to the so- called 'second level' concept for future light rail schemes. This concept focused on the grade separation, i.e., elevation and/or tunneling of tram lines. Munich and Nuremberg decided to build pure, full-scale U-Bahn (metro) systems. Berlin and Hamburg planned expansions of their existing U-Bahn networks, while most West German cities decided to upgrade their tramway networks step by step, linking new 'second level' infrastructure to existing sections. While some cities regarded this solution as an interim step that would lead to a fully separated U-Bahn (metro) network independent of other forms of transport, others planned for a lesser degree of separation, one that would accommodate additional tram-like sections in the long run. For both the interim and the long-term based concepts, the following terms came into use: "U-Straßenbahn" or "Untergrund-Straßenbahn" (underground tramway, abbreviated as "U-Strab"), "Schnellstraßenbahn" (rapid tramway) and finally Stadtbahn. (In French-speaking countries, these concepts were also known as "pre-metro", stressing their interim nature.) Some operators and cities decided to identify the term Stadtbahn with the eventual goal of installing an U-Bahn so that both the original U-Bahn logo (e.g. Frankfurt U-Bahn, Cologne Stadtbahn, Hanover Stadtbahn) and the derived U-Stadtbahn logos (e.g. North Rhine-Westphalia, Stuttgart Stadtbahn; see example above) mark station entries and stops. The numbering scheme for Stadtbahn services was prefixed with a 'U', except in the Cologne Stadtbahn, Bielefeld Stadtbahn, and Hanover Stadtbahn. 1980s: Renaissance of the tramway By the 1980s conventional tramways had been seen by decision-makers as overloaded systems for almost two decades. However, public attention focused on them at this time for two reasons. The Stadtbahn cities' second level plans faced unexpected complications in the form of lengthy construction work, budgetary problems for tunnel projects, and protests against elevated sections. At the same time, the smaller cities which had not started Stadtbahn plans reassessed their options in relation to their existing tram systems. East German cities had no 1960s-style Stadtbahn plans in place, and the fleets and the infrastructure were in need of massive investment and improvement. After the reunification of Germany in 1990, the use of the Stadtbahn term became popular in the former East Germany as well, as in Erfurt and Dresden. Stadtbahn in this wider meaning is thus not a clearly defined concept, but a vague one linked to a set of attributes, much in the same way that "Straßenbahn" (tram) is linked to very different, sometimes mutually incompatible attributes. A system that is called Stadtbahn today may not have all of the Stadtbahn attributes: barrier-free access, higher cruising speed than tramways, doors on both sides of the train, driver's cabs on both ends, higher operating voltage, wider cars with comfortable seats, and so on. 1990s: The tram goes railway In 1992 Karlsruhe started an innovative new service, using both heavy and light rail infrastructure, to link the wider region to the city. The vehicles were designed to comply with technical specifications for the (federal) heavy railway and for light rail (communal tramways). Such vehicles are called Dual- System Light Rail Vehicles. The meaning of Stadtbahn was enlarged to encompass this new type of "tram-train" service. In other regions, stimulated by the Karlsruhe example and planning to copy it, other terms are in use: Stadt- Umland-Bahn (city-to-region railway, e.g. Erlangen, also in discussion to connect the nearer surroundings of Munich, as far as not supplied with S-Bahn services so far, with the existing public transport there), Regional-Stadtbahn (regional light rail, e.g. Braunschweig). Straßenbahn (tram) and Stadtbahn in the Karlsruhe region are differentiated more by the nature of their city- border crossings only, and not by the technical dimension (Dual-System Light Rail Vehicles). Only those services that extend into the suburbs are called Stadtbahn. They are represented by the 'S' logo that is used for 'S-Bahn' (Stadtschnellbahn) in the rest of Germany and therefore partially conflict with it, as it has acquired a second meaning in Karlsruhe. 2000s: The Tram logo The Tram logo As part of the redevelopment of their main city stations, national railway company Deutsche Bahn adopted a new logo to indicate Straßenbahn (tram) connections: a square containing the word 'Tram'. Although the design is the same nationwide, the colour varies from city to city to match local public transport operators' systems of colour-coding. The logo is part of the 'S logo scheme' initially developed by Berlin public transport operator BVG, based on the established logos for urban metro ('U', for U-Bahn) and suburban metro ('S', for S-Bahn) and including bus ('Bus') and ferry ('F', for Fähre) operations. As the new logos became part of the information systems at more and more main railway stations, an increasing number of cities and public transport operators came to accept and adopt the scheme. As far as the Stadtbahn terminology problem is concerned, however, the scheme serves only to add further confusion to the matter, since there is no nationwide logo for Stadtbahn services. The result appears to be a contraction in the use of the term Stadtbahn, especially in cities where it has been used in its wider 1980s 'light-rail system' meaning. In cities where Stadtbahn has the 1960s 'pre-metro' meaning, both the 'U' (for U-Bahn) and the 'Tram' logo are used on city maps (to indicate the location of stops) and on railway station signage (to indicate connections). The 'U' Logo is normally used both where stops or stations are underground and where they serve 'second-level' pre-metro type lines. In cities which prefix all their Stadtbahn line numbers with a 'U' (e.g. Stuttgart), the 'U' logo is used at stops on services that are essentially 'classic' tram lines, not 'second-level' at all. Regionalstadtbahn The concept of Regionalstadtbahnen (also known by RegioStadtbahn or other names) arose as a result of the harmonisation or integration of railway lines into Stadtbahn networks. In the area of Cologne–Bonn a single operational system (of so-called above ground lines or Hochflurstrecken) was created by the Cologne Stadtbahn and the Bonn Stadtbahn, opened in 1974, from the conversion of two former railway lines (the Rheinuferbahn and Vorgebirgsbahn belonging to the old Köln-Bonner Eisenbahnen). Further developments led to tram-train networks that rather resembled an S-Bahn. This idea was first realised in 1992 in Karlsruhe (Karlsruhe Stadtbahn), where as part of the Karlsruhe model even so-called dual system railbuses were used, which in addition to the direct current of Straßenbahn lines (750 V) could also draw power from the 15-kV-alternating current from normal DB catenary. In Karlsruhe this network reached as far as Heilbronn, away, where a Stadtbahn network was created going out from this line. Both in Karlsruhe and in Heilbronn the Stadtbahn filled both the roles of a classic tramway system as well as an S-Bahn. The Karlsruhe mixed- operation concept was also adopted by the Saarbahn in Saarbrücken. This model is today referred to in France as the tram-train. Zwickau diesel tram-train (Vogtlandbahn) Other Stadtbahn networks in Germany without tunnels, but which incorporate railway lines, are found in: * Kassel (Kassel RegioTram with hybrid railcars for the transition between electrified and non-electrified routes) * Zwickau (Diesel railbuses of the Vogtlandbahn on tramways in the city centre) * Chemnitz (Variotrams trams fitted with railway equipment, which City-Bahn Chemnitz runs daily on the Chemnitz–Stollberg/Erzgeb. line) * Gotha (Trams in Gotha/Thüringerwaldbahn), above ground tramway (24 km long), in existence since 1924, to Waltershausen, Friedrichroda and Bad Tabarz * Nordhausen in the South Harz. This tramway network run by the Harz Narrow Gauge Railways is notable because it supplements the diesel-hybrid cars with steam engines. Legal terms Although a precise legal definition of Stadtbahn was planned in the 1970s, there is currently no such definition. By law, the BOStrab regulates all Stadtbahn systems as tram systems, as long as they are light rail rather than heavy rail. Difference between Stadtbahn and S-Bahn in Germany While the names Stadtbahn and S-Bahn have common origin ("rapid urban train"), their meaning today is different. S-Bahn is commuter rail, usually integrated into the railway network and mostly operated by the German national railway company Deutsche Bahn. Stadtbahn, on the other hand, generally use light rail vehicles (either high-floor or low-floor), and are usually integrated into the tram network, though the Stadtbahn portions do not operate with street running like trams do. They also differ in legal status: S-Bahn systems are governed under the rail rules of the Eisenbahn-Bau- und Betriebsordnung (EBO, "Ordinance on the Construction and Operation of Railways"), while Stadtbahn systems are tramways by law governed under the regulations of Verordnung über den Bau und Betrieb der Straßenbahnen (BOStrab, "Ordinance on the Construction and Operation of Trams"). See also * Tram * Light rail * Premetro * Light metro * Tram-train * Train categories in Europe References Category:Rapid transit in Germany Category:Tram transport in Germany "