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"The Nissan Cedric Y31 was a large car made by Nissan from 1987 to 2015. Y31 The Y31 was built from late 1987 through 1991 available in either Sedan or Hardtop guises. The sporty Gran Turismo SV version (discontinued in 1991) had short bumpers with a body kit, and was powered by the 2.0 liter VG20DET engine. The sedan version of the Y31 was facelifted at the launch of the Y32, which replaced the four-door hardtops. The Cedric is mechanically related to the Crew, although the Crew is slightly more compact in size. June 1987 saw a special-edition Cedric built for parade usage. The sedan remained with unchanged body appearance and ceased production in 2015. Private Cedrics were only available in four-door hardtop guise and the wagon and van versions are no longer sold. Engines available continued to be the newly developed VG series engine, with the VG20DET adding DOHC, another first for Nissan. In June 1989 the Nissan Cedric with the VG20DET offered the world's first full range electronically controlled 5-speed automatic transmission. The four-speed automatic transmission is now computer controlled for smoother shifts. The transmission now exclusively uses a floor mounted gearshifter, and a 5-speed manual transmission is still available. The rear suspension was upgraded to multi-link independent setup. Trim levels start with the Super Custom at the bottom, followed by Classic, Classic SV, Gran Turismo, and the VIP Brougham at the top. The Gran Turismo received more sport-oriented styling, adding a youthful appearance, which found new, younger, buyers. The Cedric competed for buyers with related Nissan vehicles that shared platforms used for the Cedric, specifically, the Nissan Cima, Nissan Leopard and the Nissan Gloria, as well as other sport-oriented vehicles, such as the Nissan Cefiro, Nissan Skyline and Nissan Laurel. The Cedric Y31 can be distinguished from its sibling, the Gloria Y31, by the taillights at the back. The vehicle's air conditioning could be adjusted by an infrared remote controlled hand held unit from the rear seat, located in a separate compartment attached on top of the rear armrest at the front. Separate air conditioning and heating vents were provided for rear seat passengers. Nissan Cedric sedan (Japan) Nissan Cedric hardtop sedan 2nd generation Y31 Nissan Cedric Brougham VIP Second Generation Y31 The Nissan Cedric Y31 remains in production after the launch of the Y32 in 1991. It is targeted for fleet and taxi use. The taxi version Y31 was essentially a trimmed-down version of the upper trim Y31. The fleet taxi Y31 was last updated in 2012, and was in production until 2014. The police car was used by police departments, particularly in Japan, where it was used as a marked police car and an unmarked police car by the Japanese police. The car is popular with taxi companies, particularly in Singapore, Japan and Hong Kong, where a LPG version was used due to laws requiring cabs to run on LPG only. In Jakarta, Indonesia, the diesel powered Cedric Y31 was used as an executive taxi from 1993 to 2009 before replaced by the Mercedes-Benz C-Class, Mercedes-Benz E-Class and Toyota Camry (XV40). The taxi Y31 sold poorly in Hong Kong during the later years as the Toyota Crown Comfort became the preferred choice of taxi operators, due to the very spacious rear cabin and lower running costs. Gloria Y31 The Gloria Y31 was the sibling of the Cedric, with a similar appearance, albeit with different taillights. Specifications ;Trim levels Trim levels are Original, Custom, Super Custom, Classic, Classic SV, and Brougham VIP. There was also a long wheelbase model built by Autech. ;Engine models *1998cc VG20E *1998cc VG20DET *2998cc VG30E *2998cc VG30ET turbocharged *2498cc TD25 diesel *2698cc TD27 diesel *1998cc RB20P 6-cylinder LPG carburetted *1998cc NA20P 4-cylinder LPG carburetted *2825cc RD28 diesel *2988cc RD30 diesel ;Dimensions *Exterior dimensions (LxWxH) (mm): 4860 x 1720 x 1380 *Wheelbase(mm): 2735 *Curb vehicle weight(kg): 1450 *Seating capacity: 5/6 (Incl. driver) ;Engine *Fuel type : LPG, Diesel, Petrol Ads The Nissan Gloria Y31, from 1988 onwards, featured in TV ads in Japan featuring the song Longer by Dan Fogelberg. References Cedric Y31 Category:Executive cars Category:Sedans Category:Limousines Category:Taxicab vehicles Category:Police vehicles Category:Cars introduced in 1987 Category:1990s cars Category:2000s cars Category:2010s cars "
"In petroleum geology, source rock refers to rocks from which hydrocarbons have been generated or are capable of being generated. They form one of the necessary elements of a working petroleum system. They are organic-rich sediments that may have been deposited in a variety of environments including deep water marine, lacustrine and deltaic. Oil shale can be regarded as an organic-rich but immature source rock from which little or no oil has been generated and expelled. Subsurface source rock mapping methodologies make it possible to identify likely zones of petroleum occurrence in sedimentary basins as well as shale gas plays. Types of source rocks Source rocks are classified from the types of kerogen that they contain, which in turn governs the type of hydrocarbons that will be generated. * Type I source rocks are formed from algal remains deposited under anoxic conditions in deep lakes: they tend to generate waxy crude oils when submitted to thermal stress during deep burial. * Type II source rocks are formed from marine planktonic and bacterial remains preserved under anoxic conditions in marine environments: they produce both oil and gas when thermally cracked during deep burial. * Type III source rocks are formed from terrestrial plant material that has been decomposed by bacteria and fungi under oxic or sub-oxic conditions: they tend to generate mostly gas with associated light oils when thermally cracked during deep burial. Most coals and coaly shales are generally Type III source rocks. Maturation and expulsion With increasing burial by later sediments and increase in temperature, the kerogen within the rock begins to break down. This thermal degradation or cracking releases shorter chain hydrocarbons from the original large and complex molecules occurring in the kerogen. The hydrocarbons generated from thermally mature source rock are first expelled, along with other pore fluids, due to the effects of internal source rock over-pressuring caused by hydrocarbon generation as well as by compaction. Once released into porous and permeable carrier beds or into faults planes, oil and gas then move upwards towards the surface in an overall buoyancy-driven process known as secondary migration. Mapping source rocks in sedimentary basins Areas underlain by thermally mature generative source rocks in a sedimentary basin are called generative basins or depressions or else hydrocarbon kitchens. Mapping those regional oil and gas generative "hydrocarbon kitchens" is feasible by integrating the existing source rock data into seismic depth maps that structurally follow the source horizon(s). It has been statistically observed at a world scale Gerard Demaison: "The Generative Basin Concept" in: American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) Memoir #35 : "Petroleum Geochemistry and Basin Evaluation", 1984 , Edited by Gerard Demaison and Roelof J. Murris, that zones of high success ratios in finding oil and gas generally correlate in most basin types (such as intracratonic or rift basins) with the mapped "generative depressions". Cases of long distance oil migration into shallow traps away from the "generative depressions" are usually found in foreland basins. Besides pointing to zones of high petroleum potential within a sedimentary basin, subsurface mapping of a source rock's degree of thermal maturity is also the basic tool to identify and broadly delineate shale gas plays. World class source rocks Certain source rocks are referred to as "world class", meaning that they are not only of very high quality but are also thick and of wide geographical distribution. Examples include: * Middle Devonian to lower Mississippian widespread marine anoxic oil and gas source beds in the Mid-Continent and Appalachia areas of North America: (e.g. the Bakken Formation of the Williston Basin, the Antrim Shale of the Michigan Basin, the Marcellus Shale of the Appalachian Basin). * Kimmeridge Clay – This upper Jurassic marine mudstone or its stratigraphic equivalents generated most of the oil found in the North Sea and the Norwegian Sea.Kimmeridgian Shales Total Petroleum System of the North Sea Graben Province – USGS Bulletin * La Luna Formation – This Late Cretaceous (mostly Turonian) formation generated most of the oil in northwestern Venezuela.James, K.H. 2000. The Venezuelan hydrocarbon habitat, Part 2: hydrocarbon occurrences and generated-accumulated volumes. Journal of Petroleum Geology, 23, 133–164 * Late Carboniferous coals – Coals of this age generated most of the gas in the southern North Sea, the Netherlands Basin and the northwest German Basin.Carboniferous-Rotliegend Total Petroleum System Description and Assessment Results Summary – USGS Bulletin * Hanifa Formation – This upper Jurassic laminated carbonate-rich unit has sourced the oil in the giant Ghawar field in Saudi Arabia.Total Petroleum Systems of the Paleozoic and Jurassic, Greater Ghawar Uplift and Adjoining Provinces of Central Saudi Arabia and Northern Arabian-Persian Gulf – USGS Bulletin See also * Basin modelling References External links * Source rock publications Category:Petroleum geology "
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